Classification of Programming Languages

Computer programming language can be classified into two major categories: 

•Low Level

•High Level 

1. Low Level Languages

The languages which use only primitive operations of the computer are known as low language. In these languages, programs are written by means of the memory and registers available on the computer. As we all know that the architecture of computer differs from one machine to another, so far each type of computer there is a separate low level programming language. In the other words, Programs written in one low level language of one, architectural can’t be ported on any other machine dependent languages. Examples are Machine Language and Assembly Language.

Machine Language

In machine language program, the computation is based on binary numbers. All the instructions including operations, registers, data and memory locations are given in there binary equivalent.

The machine directly understands this language by virtue of its circuitry design so these programs are directly executable on the computer without any translations. This makes the program execution very fast. Machine languages are also known as first generation languages.

A typical low level instruction consists essentially of two parts:

•An Operation Part :

Specifies operation to be performed by the computer, also known as Opcode.

•An Address Part :

Specifies location of the data on which operation is to be performed.

Advantages

Machine language makes most efficient use of computer system resources like storage, registers, etc. the instruction of a machine language program are directly executable so there is no need of translators. Machine language instruction can be used to manipulate the individual bits in a computer system with high execution speed due to direct manipulation of memory and registers.

Drawbacks

Machine languages are machine dependent and, therefore, programs are not portable from one computer to other. Programming in machine language usually results in poor programmer productivity. Machine languages require programmers to control the use of each register in the computer’s Arithmetic Logic Unit and computer storage locations must be addressed directly, not symbolically. Machine language requires a high level of programming skill which increases programmer training costs. Programs written in machine language are more error prone and difficult to debug because it is very difficult to remember all binary equivalent of register, opcode, memory location, etc. program size is comparatively very big due to non-use of reusable codes and use of very basic operations to do a complex computation.

Assembly Language

Assembly language are also known as second generation languages. These languages substitutes alphabetic or numeric symbols for the binary codes of machine language. That is, we can use mnemonics for all opcodes, registers and for the memory locations which provide us with a facility to write reusable code in the form of macros. Has two parts, one is macro name and the other is macro body which contains the line of instructions. A macro can be called at any point of the program by its name to use the instruction. A macro can be called at any point of the program by its name to use the instructions given in the macro repetitively.

These language require a translator known as “Assembler” for translating the program code written in assembly language to machine language. Because computer can interpret only the machine code instruction, once the translation is completed the program can be executed.

Advantages

Assembly language provide optimal use of computer resources like registers and memory because of direct use of these resources within the programs. Assembly language is easier to use than machine language because there is no need to remember or calculate the binary equivalents for opcode and registers. An assembler is useful for detecting programming errors. Assembly language encourages modular programming which provides the facility of reusable code, using macro.

Drawbacks

Assembly language programs are not directly executable due to the need of translation. Also, these languages are machine dependent and, therefore, not portable from one machine to another. Programming in assembly language requires a high level of programming skills and knowledge of computer architecture of the particular machine.

High Level Languages (HLL)

All high level language are procedure-oriented language and are intended to be machine independent. Programs are written in statements akin to English language, a great advantage over mnemonics of assembly languages require languages use mnemonics of assembly language. That is, the high level languages use natural language like structures. These languages require translators (compilers and interpreters) for execution. The programs written in a high level language can be ported on any computer, that is why known they are known as machine independent. The early highlevel language come in third generation of languages, COBOL, BASIC, APL, etc.

These languages enable the programmer to write instruction using English words and familiar mathematical symbols which makes it easier than technical details of the computer. It makes the programs more readable too.

Procedures

Procedures are the reusable code which can be called at any point of the program. Each procedure is defined by a name and set of instructions accomplishing a particular task. The procedure can be called by its name with the list of required parameters which should pass to tat procedure.

Advantages of High Level Languages

These are the third generation languages. These are procedure-oriented languages and are machine independent. Programs are written in English like statements. As high level languages are not directly executable, translators(compilers and interpreters) are used to convert them in machine language equivalent.

Advantages

1)These are easier to learn than assembly language.

2)Les time is required to write programs.

3)These provides better documentation.

4)These are easier to maintain.

5)These have an extensive vocabulary.

Limitation of Programming language

1)A long sequence statements is to be written for every program.

2)Additional memory space is required for storing compiler or interpreter.

3)Execution time is very high as the HLL programs are not directly executable.

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Bohol Island is the main island of Bohol Province in the Visayas

Link: Top 50 Wallpaper of Bohol Island

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Bohol Island is the main island of Bohol Province in the Visayas. It lies southeast from Cebu Island across Cebu Strait (in some references called Bohol Strait) and southwest from Leyte Island, separated by the Camotes Sea and Canigao Channel. Bohol is also located north of Mindanao with Bohol Sea between them.

With a land area of 3269 km² and a coastline 261 km long, Bohol is the tenth largest island of the Philippines. The main island is surrounded by about 70 smaller islands, the largest of which are Panglao Island facing Tagbilaran City in the southwest and Lapining Island in the northeast.

Retreat sa mga lunsod o bayan buhay
Ang pagkuha ng isang kaswal na break mula sa ang kahanga-hangang tanawin ng kalikasan na magkaroon ng isang mabilis nabumalik sa mga lunsod o bayan buhay ay hindi mahirap dahil angBohol nag-aalok din ng kaginhawahan at kasiyahan ng mga lunsod o bayan buhay. Paghahanap ng mga kaluwagan ay hindi isanghamon dahil may mga hotel at Resorts na kung saan ang iyong mga pangangailangan ay na rin nakilala sa mahusay na serbisyoat modernong amenities.
Tagbilaran City, Bohol's capital, nag-aalok ng kanyang mga bisitana pino blending ng paraiso at modernong buhay. Kahit naserbisyo sa bayan ay maaaring mahuli sa likod ng isang bit kapagihahambing sa mga pangunahing lungsod tulad ng Manila o Cebu,Tagbilaran pa rin ay nag-aalok ang pinakamahusay na ng mga lunsod o bayan buhay. Kagawaran tindahan, ang pera changers,mga bangko, ATM's, Cinemas, restawran, mga ospital, mga ahensiya ng travel, at hotel ay matatagpuan dito. Buhay ay maaaring maging isang halo ng mga modernong urban amenitiesat napakaligaya tropiko havens.

Pangkatawan


Aerial view ng Bohol's interior
Location. Bohol ay isang isla lalawigan sa Visayas. Ito lies timog-silangan mula sa Cebu sa buong Bohol Strait at sa timog-kanluranmula sa Leyte, na pinaghihiwalay ng mga Camotes Sea atCanigao Channel. Bohol ay din matatagpuan sa hilaga ngMindanao sa Bohol Sea sa pagitan nila.
Tampok. Sa pamamagitan ng isang lupa na lugar ng 3269 km ² atbaybay-dagat ng isang 261 km mahaba, ang Bohol ay angikasampu pinakamalaking isla ng Pilipinas. Ang mga pangunahingisla ay napapaligiran ng tungkol sa 70 na mas maliit na isla, ang pinakamalaking na kung saan ay Panglao Island nakaharap saTagbilaran City sa timog-kanluran at Lapinig Island sa hilagang-silangan.

Ang topograpiya ng Bohol ay talaga lumiligid at maburol at tungkol sa kalahati ng isla ay sakop sa apog. Malapit sa panlabas na mga lugar ng mga isla ay mababa ang bundok mga saklaw. Ang loobay isang malaking talampas na may iregular landforms.

Malapit Carmen ay matatagpuan sa pangunahing tourist gumuhitng lalawigan, ang Chocolate Hills. Ang higit sa 1,200unipormadong kono-hugis ng bato burol ay pinangalanan na angparaan dahil sa ang tag-araw, ang mga damo lumalaki sa mgaburol maging kayumanggi, ang paggawa ng mga tanawin ang hitsura ito ay Mounds chocolate ang lahat ng higit. Ang ChocolateHills ay matatagpuan sa provincial seal ng Bohol.

This article copy from Wikipedia & also boholboard you can get more information from there:http://ourspecialnews.blogspot.com/2011/06/bohol-island-is-main-island-of-bohol.html

The Generation of Computer

In recent years, the computer industry has grow at a phenomenal pace. In a short time of 35 years or so computers have improved tremendously. In the last decade the speed of computer has increase. The cast per unit of calculating has gone down by 500 times. The storage capacity is increasing so fast that now it seems that nothing is impossible to store. Large data can be stored in very small devices.

First Generation of computer(1942-1955):-

Until 1951, electronic computers were exclusive possession of scientists and the military. Till then nobody tried to use them for business purpose. The idea of marketing them was conceived mushily and Eckert, creators of ENIAC’S. as US census bureau was already using IBCP cards, they were the pioneers in US buying this computer for the first time in 1951. the company created by M and ETS become UNIVAC division of Sperry and Corporation (later known as UNISYS).

Computer belonging to this generation had the following characteristics:

1. Comparatively large in size as composed to present day computers.

2. Generated lot of heat, they were not consistent and reliable as the valves tended to fall frequently.

3. low capacity internal storage.

4. individual, non-related models.

5. processors operated in the milliseconds speed range.

6. internal storage consisted of magnetic drum and delay lines.

Second Generation (1955-1964):

FGC were very unreliable, mainly because of vacuum tubes which kept on burning out. Users had to be prepared all the time with dizen of extra tubes to replace them. The computers of this generation were characterized by the use of Solid State devices(transistors) misted of vacuum tubes. Transistorized circuits were smaller, generated little heat, were expensive and consumed less power than vacuum tube circuits and were much greater in processing capacity.

Since transistors had a faster switching action, this generation than first generation computers. The use of magnetic cores as the primary internal storage medium and the introduction of removable magnetic disc pack were other major developments of the second generation. Although magnetic tapes were still used commonly. These computers had built in error detecting devices and more efficient means were developed to input and retrieve from the computer.

Some of the popular models in this generation of computer systems, we IBM-1401, IBM-1620, BURROUGHS B-200 SERIES, HONEY-WELL H-400, these computers were used for business applications.

Third Generation of Computer(1964-1975)

A revolution in the computer developments took place with the development of integrated circuits (IC) on a single silicon chip. In 1958, jack St Clair Kebly and Robert Noyce invented the first IC. IC incorporated number of transistors and electronic circuits on a single wafer or chip of silicon IC is called chip beause of the way they are made. They are also called as semi conductors as combining layers of materials that have varying capacity to conduct electricity from them.

This ushered in the third generation of computer systems in 1964. the integrated circuits enhanced considerably the processing capability of placing 12 or more logic gates on a single chip was developed into a well-defined technology was redefined to a point where hundreds or more gates could be placed on a chip of silicon and incorporated as functional logic block in an overall system.

Computers of this generation have the following characteristicts:

1. Smaller in size as compared to second generation computers.

2. Higher capacity internal storage.

3. Remote communication facilities.

4. Multiprogramming facilities.

5. Reduced cost of access storage.

6. Processors, which operate in nanosecond speed range.

7. Use of high level languages such as COBOL.

8. Wide range of optional peripherals.

Fourth Generation of Computer (1975-1989)

The 1970’s marked the beginning of a new generation of computers, produced by computer giants like IBM, ICL, CNR and Burrought. From design viewpoint, the new generation provided increased input-output capability, longer component life as well as greater system reliability. From the functional view point, new powerful language were developed to broaden the use of multiprogramming and multiprocessing and major shift from batch processing to on line, remote interactive processing.

The development of microprocessor chip, which contains an entire Central Processing Unit(CPU) on a single silicon chip led to the mushroom growth of inexpensive computers. They are not computers by themselves but they can perform all the functions of arithmetic logic unit and control units of the CPU. When these microprocessor are connected with memory and input-output devices, they become microcomputers.

The use of very large integrated circuits (VLSI) has made the froth generation (micro) computers very compact, much less expensive, faster, more reliable and of much greater data processing capacity than equalized third generation computers.

Some computers belonging to fourth generation are DEC-10, STAR-1000, PDP-11 AND APPLE Series Personal computers.

Fifth Generation Computers (1989-Present)

Till fourth generation of computers, the major stress was on improving the hardware from values to transistors and then to integrated circuits, which resulted in miniaturization and fast speed of computers. Hardware, the lack of thinking power has forced the scientists to work further for fifth generation computers.

The concept of “Artificial Intelligence” is being used in these computers and Japanese call them “Knowledge Processors”. Automatic programming, computational logic, pattern recognition and control of robots, the processes and which need skill and intelligence are examples of Artificial Intelligence. These computers, when developed, will have be able to execute billion of instructions per second and will have unimaginable storage capacities. The present day high level languages will become obsolete on these machines and new computer language and related software will be needed.

Computers of this generation have the following characteristics:

1.Easy to computers with high intelligence and natural human input and output mechanism;

2.Reliable and efficient software development by new languages, new computer architectures and systems software which overcome previous problems;

3.Improved overall functions and performance aimed at making computers smaller, lighter, faster, faster, of greater capacity, more flexible and more reliable

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Cricket Live: England vs India 20 Oct 2011 02:30 PM IST

England vs India - ODI

PLAY IN PROGRESS

3rd ODI, Punjab Cricket Association Stadium, Mohali, India, Thu, 20 Oct 2011 02:30 PM IST

England won the toss & elected to bat

(Scorecard refreshes automatically in 4 seconds)

• Now!
• Full Scoreboard
• Full Commentary

• 1^st Innings

• ENG 248/4 in 44.5 overs

• Cur RR: 5.53

• England

  1^st Innings

  • Batting

    R

    B

    4s

    6s

    S/R

  • Alastair Cook

    lbw b Vinay Kumar

    3

    10

    0

    0

    30.00

  • Craig Kieswetter

    b Virat Kohli

    36

    38

    3

    2

    94.74

  • Jonathan Trott

    Batting

    85

    105

    8

    0

    80.95

  • Kevin Pietersen

    lbw b Ravindra Jadeja

    64

    61

    9

    0

    104.92

  • Ravi Bopara

    b Praveen Kumar

    24

    32

    3

    0

    75.00

  • Samit Patel

    Batting

    33

    23

    4

    0

    143.48

  • Jonathan Bairstow

    -

    -

    -

    -

    -

  • Tim Bresnan

    -

    -

    -

    -

    -

  • Graeme Swann

    -

    -

    -

    -

    -

  • Steven Finn

    -

    -

    -

    -

    -

  • Jade Dernbach

    -

    -

    -

    -

    -

  • Extras (b 0, lb 1, w 2, nb 0)

    3

  • Total Score:

    248/4(44.5 Over)RR: 5.53

  • Fall Of Wicket:

    1-8 (Alastair Cook, 3.1 Over) 2-53 (Craig Kieswetter, 12.1 Over) 3-154 (Kevin Pietersen, 29.1 Over) 4-195 (Ravi Bopara, 38.1 Over)

    Bowling	O	M	R	W	NB	WD	E/R
    Praveen Kumar	8	0	42	1	0	2	5.25
    Vinay Kumar	7	1	40	1	0	0	5.71
    Virat Kohli	3	0	20	1	0	0	6.66
    Umesh Yadav	8.5	0	59	0	0	0	6.67
    Ravichandran Ashwin	10	0	45	0	0	0	4.5
    Ravindra Jadeja	8	0	41	1	0	0	5.12